Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness

Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness Introduction Increased levels of obesity and poor health standards among students across the United States (US) has brought a lot of focus to student health and more so, the effects of bad health on academic performance (Chomitz, 2009, p. 30).Advertising We will write a custom thesis sample on Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the debate on the correlation between health and academic performance has long been done and concluded. On the other hand, the debate on the correlation between physical activities (as a major health facet for students) and academic performance is only emerging. The benefits of regular physical exercise have been widely acknowledged throughout health and medical circles. For instance, research studies done on animals have come to a conclusion that physical exercising increases neural development while other closely related similar studies have affirmed that physi cal exercising leads to a greater development of neuronal synapses (Grissom, 2005, p. 1). Increased physical activity has also been affirmed to reduce stress levels and equally reduce anxiety, not only among students but also in the general human population as well. These factors have been associated with increased academic performance. In fact, there has been evidence of upcoming research studies suggesting that the lack of physical exercise or inactivity may in the near future overtake the detrimental effects tobacco is known to have on human beings (Grissom, 2005, p. 1). Some sections of the media have also identified that survivors of cancer have a higher likelihood of preventing the occurrence of the disease if they regularly exercise and observe a healthy diet. These findings are likely to develop a new relationship between the learning environment and student cognitive development but more questions still linger on whether the relationship between physical exercises and acade mic achievement can be linked to academic performance when standardized tests are applicable (Kirk, 2006, p. 203).Advertising Looking for thesis on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This point of view is shared by Grissom (2005) who notes that â€Å"Few studies have used standardized fitness measures and standardized test scores in large urban populations or examined the relationship of academic achievement and fitness among elementary and middle school students† (p. 3). However, the same level of optimism about physical exercising in the media and health circles is not evidenced in the educational field as it is in other disciplines as well. In fact, in educational circles, physical education is seen as an extracurricular activity and if there is increased pressure on teachers to improve academic results, often, physical education is the first to be cut-back so that more time is created for ot her academic activities. Many researchers are against this sort of trend because they explain that if physical education exposes a positive correlation with academic excellence, then it would no longer be perceived as an extra curricular activity (Grissom, 2005, p. 1). This study essentially relies on this point of view because apart from the obvious health benefits associated with physical education, there is still a direct link it has to academic excellence. There have been very minimal research done to establish the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement and those that exist have significant methodology problems that eventually result in the occurrence of significant doubts about their findings. Those that have had a conclusive finding have however suffered the problem of obtaining credible data to support their arguments and therefore their conclusions are not as strong as they should be.Advertising We will write a custom thesis sample on Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nonetheless, one of the main factors why many researchers have hit a dead-end in establishing the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement is because of the fact that it is difficult to obtain valid and reliable measures for both physical fitness and academic excellence. Because of this challenge, this study will make use of the state testing criteria for both variables (academic achievement and physical fitness). From the understanding of the relationship between academic excellence and physical exercise, educationists can therefore be directed on the best channels to direct their resources. Considering the importance of this study in the establishment of positive academic outcomes in schools, this study establishes that there is a positive correlation between physical exercising and academic achievement. Importance of Understanding the Study Understand ing the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement is very important for educationists and parents alike because it ensures they are aware of the dynamics that relate to the two variables and how it may affect students and children respectively. Teachers and educationists may find the information quite useful in drawing up an effective program that basically integrates both variables for optimum results (Science Daily, 2010, p. 4). In other words, they can be able to easily strike a balance between physical and academic activities for optimum results. This also entails facilitating the development of the right program mixes and policy balances which are overly sensitive to the upheaval of education standards. Also considering most educators are normally under immense pressure to improve academic performance in light of scarce educational resources, this study’s findings are likely to point such people in the right direction by identifying possible areas of effective resource allocation that will consequently lead to the proper utilization of academic resources (Science Daily, 2010, p. 4). Time is one such resource and many schools are often faced with the dilemma of allocating time to the most productive functional areas of education.Advertising Looking for thesis on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More From the understanding of the contribution physical education brings to academic performance, time can therefore be allocated to physical education if it is established that it has a significant contribution to academic performance, or on the contrary, time can be cut back if it is established that it does not have a significant contribution to academic performance. Since most educators have often been criticized for not providing holistic education and only focused on academic performance, the findings of this study will be useful to educators and policy makers in establishing the extent through which physical education will affect academic performance because physical fitness is an element of learning that encompasses a holistic education demanded by most people (Science Daily, 2010, p. 4). Moreover, its impact on academic performance will be accurately quantified because academic performance is normally perceived to be the pinnacle of education and most learning institutions woul d not compromise it if they do not have a correct assessment of the impact physical education has on it (academic success). Moreover, in today’s current era of increased competition, many learning institutions have been observed to cut back on the time allocated to physical education in order to have a competitive advantage over others institutions and so the information derived from this study will be useful to learning institutions which do not intend to take this strategy while still uphold good academic performance (Science Daily, 2010, p. 4). Literature Review The concern about children health has been a new issue of concern not only in educational circles but also in social circles. More so, there have been increased concerns about the increased rate of obesity among children and new research studies presented at the American’s Heart Association forum suggest that physical health concerns among students is correlated to the level of academic achievement (Cottrell , 2010). There have been closely related research studies done by Cottrell, an educational researcher at Wood County in America who was trying to establish the relationship between body mass index and academic performance. He suggested that students who had better grades (above average) in Mathematics, science and social studies were in an overall good physical state of fitness while those who were not in good physical fitness (in a period of two years) performed poorly in academics for the two years studied (Chomitz, 2009, p. 30). In affirmation of his findings, he explained that The take-home message from this study is that we want our kids to be fit as long as possible and it will show in their academic performance (Cottrell, 2010, p. 31). He further reiterated that But if we can intervene on those children who are not necessarily fit and get them to physically fit levels, we may also see their academic performance increase (Cottrell, 2010, p. 32). In complementing these findings , auxiliary studies (still done by Cottrell) suggested that students who regularly took part in physical exercises were bound to have a very vibrant adulthood (Cottrell, 2010). In response to these findings, it was established by the American heart association that students should do at least an hour of physical exercising a day so that they are in fit position to enhance their youth and improve their academic performance altogether (Science Daily, 2010). In summing their findings, Medical News (2011) concluded that â€Å"The study suggests that focusing more on physical fitness and physical education in school would result in healthier, happier and smarter children† (p. 11). However, studies done by Grissom (2005) expose an interesting underlying premise behind this positive correlation. In detail, he exposes the fact that the positive correlation between physical fitness and academic success is strongest among female students than males (Grissom, 2005). In the same manner, he observes that the positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement is also more evident among higher socioeconomic status than lower strata. Grissom was also involved in another co relational research study presented in the year 2005 and aimed at investigating the relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness. The research study affirmed that, there was a strong relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement (California Department of Education, 2005, p. 1). This conclusion sought to validate previous research findings which also established the positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement. The study was done with the knowledge that, previous studies established a positive relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness but it was nevertheless done because previous research evidence acknowledged a missing causal relationship between the two variables. To support the research’s fi ndings, data relating to a previous physical fitness test undertaken in the state of California during the year 2004 were used. The data used was obtained from the Fitnessgram test which is the standard California test used to evaluate students’ fitness levels. The test was administered from February to May of the year 2004 and it was administered to a large sample size of students sought from fifth, seventh and ninth grades. The students were sought from selected public schools in the state of California. With regards to the subject areas studied and the administration time-frame, California Department of Education (2005) explains that, â€Å"The CST scores were measures of academic achievement in English–language arts, mathematics, history–social science, and science. The CSTs were administered in spring 2004 to students in the second grade through the eleventh grade in California public schools† (p. 6). Before the test was undertaken, the demographical information of the respondents was collected according to the requirements of two testing programs used in the study (PFT and CST). The demographic data was used to create matching files to be equated to the various testing criteria of the PFT and CST. The files which posed a matching score had to have data relating to a respondent’s fitnessgram test and the CST test. In this regard, it was easier to compare data relating to PFT and CST. However, the PFT score determined six aspects of a respondent’s fitness including â€Å"the aerobic capacity, body composition, abdominal strength, trunk strength, upper body strength and flexibility† (California Department of Education, 2005, p. 7). These parameters abound, the performance of the respondents was determined in two levels, â€Å"(1) in the healthy fitness zone, which means students met or exceeded the fitness target, or (2) needs improvement, which means students failed to meet the fitness target† (Califo rnia Department of Education, 2005, p. 10). The PFT scores therefore ranged from zero to six, meaning that, if a respondent scored one on the fitness score, he or she would only have satisfied one of the fitness criteria. In the same regard, if a respondent scored six on the fitness score, he or she should have satisfied all the fitness criteria guidelines. In finalizing the methodological application of the research, California Department of Education (2005) establishes that: â€Å"Analyses first calculated the mean scale scores for the CST in English–language arts and the CST in mathematics for each overall PFT score. Second, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and linear regression was used to test the statistical significance of the relationship between the overall PFT and achievement scores† (p. 10). From the above methodology, it was established that, when the PFT scores improved, there was a resultant improvement in the scores of English language test. It was further e stablished that, for students who did not meet the average scale score of the English language, a score of 311 was recorded on the fitness scale (for fifth graders), while students from the seventh and ninth graders who also satisfied the above requirements scored and average of 300 and 304 ( for seventh and ninth graders respectively). Moreover, the California Department of Education (2005) establishes that: â€Å"The average scale score on the CST in English–language arts for fifth-grade students who achieved all six fitness standards was 355. The same scale score for seventh and ninth graders was 350 and 352, respectively. The change in average scale scores on the CST in English–language arts from those who achieved none of the fitness standards to those who achieved all six was around 50 points† (p. 12). These test results showed that, there was a positive relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement because as one variable increased, so di d the other. The mathematics scale scores showed nothing different with the English studies because as the PFT studies improved, the CST scale scores improved as well. This result shows that, there was a strong consistency in the results evidenced from mathematics and English test scores. However, in determining this outcome, it is important to acknowledge that, the analysis of variance and linear regression was important in establishing the statistical validity of the findings. In undertaking the research study, there was concern among the researchers to investigate if there were any significant variations in the character of the respondents (which would ultimately affect the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement) (California Department of Education, 2005, p. 16). In this regard, the population sample was later broken down into subgroups of girls and boys. It was later established that, there was a consistency of outcome in determining the relationship betw een physical fitness and academic achievement because the relationship between fitness and academic achievement was consistent across the genders. However, though this relationship was considered solid up to this point, it was evidenced that, the change in achievement scores was greater for girls than for boys. Socioeconomic status was also used as a parameter for establishing the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement and the National school lunch program acted as a proxy for the parameter. Through this proxy, it was established that, students who received free lunch came from a lower socioeconomic status and those who did not, came from a higher socioeconomic status. The same positive relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement was still observed under this parameter but it was established that the rate of scores in academic achievement was greater for students who were under the National school lunch program as compared to those who were not (California Department of Education, 2005, p. 14). The outcome of the study was predictably similar for mathematics and English test scores and in the same manner, the results of seventh and fifth graders were consistent with the results of the fifth graders. Collectively, the results showed that, the positive relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement was stronger for girls than for boys and in the same manner, it was stronger for students from a higher socioeconomic status than for students from a lower socioeconomic status. The biggest strength for the conclusions derived from this study emanates from the fact that, the researchers used the analysis of variance and linear regression as a test of the statistical variance of the conclusions derived. Both linear regression and the analysis of variance helped validate the data derived from the findings because linear regression in isolation implements a statistical model that when relationships between indepe ndent and dependent relationships almost develop a linear relationship, optimal results will be achieved, but in the same manner, linear relationships can be inappropriatekly used to model nonlinear relationships if caution is not taken. Grissom was also involved in another co relational research study (cited in Grissom, 2005) aimed at investigating the relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness. The objective of this research study was the same as the previous research study cited in this article because it was aimed at evaluating the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement although different parameters were used. For instance, although the study used the Fitnessgram test, scores derived from this measure was compared to the standard achievement test which is an independent from of standardized test used to evaluate student performance. The respondents were also fifth, seventh and ninth graders, just like the previous study, but they amoun ted to 884,174 students, which was a large sample size for the study. The students were selected from California public schools through the state requirements for the Fitnessgram test. The large population sampled is a great strength of the study because it is affirmed that, large samples of study add to the credibility of the conclusion to be derived from a study because they expose a lot of variations in the conclusions derived. Moreover, there are less chances of error occurrence when large samples are used. Another strength evidenced from this study is the fact that, it relied on the Fitnessgram test which is guaranteed by the California law as credible and accurate. In fact, Grissom (2005) explains that: â€Å"†¦During the month of February, March, April, or May, the governing board of each School district maintaining any of grades five, seven and nine shall administer to each pupil in those grades the physical performance test designated by the state board of educationâ €  (p. 19). These regulations expose the fact that, the Fitnessgram scores were consistent and standardized. Moreover, the Fitnessgram test has several options which ensure that performance tasks are effectively completed with ease. For example, it offered unique features to ensure even disabled students are able to complete the task; the same way, other students do. This feature ensured that, the conclusion derived from the study was holistic. In this study, the Fitnessgram test was used to measure five fitness aspects: â€Å"aerobic capacity, body composition, flexibility, trunk strength, and upper body strength† (Grissom, 2005, p. 19). In obtaining accurate data for the above parameters, the Fitnessgram test was designed to collect data by requiring students to complete â€Å"one option from aerobic capacity, one option from body composition, the curl-up test, the trunk lift test, one option from upper body strength and one option from flexibility† (Grissom, 2005 , p. 19). To add to the strengths of the findings obtained from this research study, it is important to acknowledge that, the standards envisioned in the Fitnessgram test were validated by the Cooper institute of Aerobics research with the performance classified into two divisions: where students met the healthy division target and where the students failed to meet the fitness target (Grissom, 2005, p. 20). The score ranged from zero to six; whereby zero meant no target was reached and six meant all targets were attained. In collecting data regarding the Fitnessgram test, PFT and STAR programs were used. As a result, matched files were created; whereby data regardiong the matched files were used to account for the PFT scores and standardized achievement scores. The standardized test came in handy during the collection of demographical information regarding the respondents because information such as the birth date and gender were clearly documented. However, in the collection of suc h demographical data, there was a slight possibility of the occurrence of errors as is explained by Grissom (2005) that: â€Å"As such, these data were used to evaluate the relationship between overall scores on the PFT and the standardized achievement tests. There could be errors in the matching process but there was no reason to believe matching errors biased the results† (p. 20). The study also established that, the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement was consistently positive; meaning that, as the scores in the fitness scale improved, the scores in the academic scale also improved. The researchers also did a subgroup study on the different demographical parameters of the sample population and consequently came up with socioeconomic status and gender as the defining parameters. The criteria to segregate the population along socioeconomic lines was the same as the previous 2005 study mentioned in this article because it was established that, stude nts who enrolled in the school lunch feeding program was from a lower socioeconomic status and those who did not, were from a higher socioeconomic status. In this regard, the study established that, the intensity of the relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness was stronger for female respondents than male respondents and therefore, in the same manner; the relationship was stronger in higher socioeconomic groups as opposed to lower socioeconomic groups. Nonetheless, the researchers identified that: â€Å"there may be other mental aspects attributed to the improvement in academic performance than just physical fitness. The average test score by way of PFT was an average of the indicator relationship between fitness and achievement but to validate the statistical significance of the findings, the analysis of variance was used to validate the relationship between overall PFT score and the achievement scores† (Grissom, 2005, p. 21). Only students who had comp lete sores on the PFT tests had their results tabulated because there would have been some inconsistencies observed in the conclusions if there were test results below six included in the findings. If this was done, it would mean that, there would be incomplete test scores included in the study and this would have dented the validity of the study because the minimal competency for the study would not have been attained. ANOVA tests affirmed that there was a statistically significant relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement. However, it was acknowledged that, this positive correlation was also subject to other variables not mentioned in the study. For example, it was established that the positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement in students from higher socioeconomic groups could have been brought about by the fact that, children from a higher socioeconomic status have better health, hail from a background of higher academic achieveme nt and generally live in better human conditions which probably contribute to their better physical fitness levels (Grissom, 2005). On the other hand, students who hail from a lower socioeconomic status are more likely to suffer family turmoil, and their households are bound to be more unstable when compared to students hailing from a higher socioeconomic status. Such students are also likely to live in deplorable conditions which ultimately affect their health and have less social supportive networks. Generally, they are also likely to have less cognitive enriching environments because of a collection of the above factors or a combination of two or more factors (Grissom, 2005, p. 22). In the same regard, it was established that, despite the positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement, causality cannot be established from this relationship. Grissom (2005) explains that: â€Å"There was no time or logical ordering that automatically leads from one event to the other. It is just as logical to believe that mental capacity affects physical ability. For example, there is evidence that mental stress can lower the effectiveness of the immune system† (p. 21). From this analysis, it was affirmed that, the study only represented a preliminary analysis into the relationship existing between academic achievement and physical fitness but it was also affirmed that the study’s findings presented a good ground for the development of future models and theories defining the relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness. Experimental designs were also identified to fail to expose the causality underlying various co relational relationships because they were assumed to be premature and bound to fail to expose the underlying factors affecting the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement. This fact was supported by the assumption that, it was extremely difficult to increase academic achievement in subse quent time-frames (Grissom, 2005). Nonetheless, these insights were not an argument against experimental designs because conclusively, the study established that, there was a positive relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness. Other research studies done to dig deeper into the specific areas of academic achievement showed that academic achievement was noted to improve most in mathematics and science subjects. In the same studies it was established that there was no significant improvement in performance of subjects other than the two. For instance, in Canada it was established that an increase of physical exercises of one hour each day resulted in a significant improvement in mathematics scores for second, third, fourth, fifths and sixth graders (Chomitz, 2009, p. 35). It was also established that there was no significant changes of academic performance in other subject areas. However, for some reason, the studies caution users from making direct conclusions abo ut the positive correlation between physical exercising and mathematics. New York City’s health department has also reiterated the fact that physically fit students are bound to outperform their colleagues who are sedentary when it comes to academic performance. These findings had been derived from research studies evaluating the relationship among high school students using the state’s test measurement criterion the NYC Fitnessgram (Harutyunyan, 2009, p. 1). The study was necessitated by the rising obesity levels among children in New York. The statistics exposed that about 21% of students at kindergarten level (all through to the 8th grade) were obese and comprehensively, it was estimated that the city’s total student population had an obesity prevalence rate of approximately 18% (Harutyunyan, 2009, p. 1). It was estimated that children who highly performed on both variables in the NYC fitness score tremendously outperformed those who got a poor score in the fitness program scale. The difference was characterized by 36 percentile points (Harutyunyan, 2009, p. 1). After it was established that there was a positive correlation between physical activities and academic excellence, the city’s educational administrators decided to sensitize parents on the benefits of eating healthy foods and allocating at least 60 minutes a day of their children’s time to exercising. A number of activities were identified as appropriate exercises parents could encourage their children to engage in (they included, cycling, dancing skipping the rope, playing basketball or even taking a simple walk). Among these factors, a host of other recommendations were identified to be helpful in improving the students’ activity levels. They included limiting the time students spent on the computers (and more so the internet). This also included television and video game use. The second recommendation advanced to parents was to prepare healthy foods for their children such as vegetables, and fruits, at least two times a day. It was also recommended that the children should not drink beverages that have a lot of calories like sodas or juice; instead they should consume low-fat milk and water. Parents were also advised to encourage their children to avoid unhealthy foods and consider the healthy foods and diets provided at school The above findings can be explained by Scheuer (2003, p. 3) who identifies the fact that physical exercises significantly boost students’ brain nourishment, and revitalizes the students’ brain function to eventually increase the student’s ability to perform well in cognitive learning exercises. Complimentary findings have also established that physical exercising among students increases students’ self-esteem, concentration and encourages better behavior, thereby leading to an increased positive attitude among students who fall within this category (Bailey, 2000, p. 75). However, there has not been a strong relationship established to link the above mentioned factors with excellent academic performance, although it is presumed that students with a high self-esteem, better behavior and high concentration levels are likely to perform better than those who do not share the same attributes. However, it has been affirmed that physical exercising is bound to increase academic achievement more effectively in the short run rather than the long run. Interesting studies done on older adults note that physical activity is likely to increase cognitive function among this group of students in the same way it does younger students (Scheuer, 2003, p. 3). This observation therefore explains the findings observed by Cottrell because it was further established that physical exercising was bound to increase brain attributes which facilitated increased cerebral blood flow in the brain (which obviously complimented cognitive learning) (Corbin, 2010, p. 64). In addition, it was also established that increased physical exercising was bound to improve hormonal imbalance and therefore instances of better nutritional intake among students was bound to be boosted. This observation was seconded by research studies cited in (Medical News, 2011) which suggested that a trio of studies presented at the 2001 Society for Neuroscience Conference suggest that regular exercise can improve cognitive function and increase levels of substances in the brain responsible for maintaining the health of neurons (p. 2). These findings are also supported by other similar findings by Darla Castelli, an American professor in Illinois (cited in Medical News, 2011) who establishes that â€Å"students’ total fitness, as measured by passing all 5 components of the Fitnessgram, positively correlated with academic achievement, measured by the standardized Illinois State Achievement Test, particularly Mathematics and Science† (p. 5). Brain functions were further identified to significantly improve due to increased physical exercises because there were increased instances of energy generation brought about by physical exercises because physical exercises provided a break from the boring classroom environment, therefore resulting in higher attention levels among students. In conclusion to these findings, Medical News (2011) recommends that: â€Å"Enhanced brain function, energy levels, body builds/perceptions, self-esteem, and behavior have been attributed to physical activity and to improved academic performance. One cannot make direct correlations from the information offered. However it is obvious that many positive relationships have been suggested. Perhaps instead of decreasing physical activity, school officials should consider developing enhanced physical activity programs† (p. 3). Studies done by John Gardner centre (cited in Gardner, 2009, p. 1) also show a positive correlation between physical fitness and academic performance based on demo graphical factors. Comprehensively, they identify that students who managed to pass the California Physical fitness test also showed a similar higher performance in the state’s standardized test (Rahl, 2010, p. 81). It was further established that the positive relationship exhibited between physical exercising and positive academic outcomes did not start at the time the studies were done, but at a year before the studies were undertaken. Moreover, upon close follow-up of the research, it was established that the same observations were evidenced throughout the academic life of the studied students (Gardner, 2009, p. 1). Since the study was undertaken within two years, it was affirmed that students who showed increased physical activity between their fifth and seventh grades showed a significant increase in academic achievement as well, but the opposite was observed with students whose physical fitness declined within the two year period. However, it was established that the ac ademic achievement observed among highly fit students was only evident when general fitness was studied and not a specific fitness measure (Gardner, 2009, p. 1). Regardless of the conclusions derived from the above findings, it should not be assumed that physical fitness is the magical solution to students who do not enjoy high academic performance (Biddle, 2008, p. 186). For instance, students who take part in academic programs hampered by limited facilities cannot enjoy high academic excellence even if they are physically fit. To reiterate this sentiment, Biddle (2008) notes that â€Å"We’re not suggesting that if we run more laps it will make us smarter†¦but there does appear to be a correlation† (p. 4). This fact therefore implies that academic achievement is just one segment of the academic achievement puzzle. Because of the interesting intrigues about physical fitness and academic achievement, it is affirmed that a number of strategies can be adopted to impr ove students’ fitness even though a learning institution may be faced with other educational problems such as a lack of resources. For starters, learning institutions should endeavor to maximize existing opportunities in the school curriculum to improve the physical fitness of the students. This can be achieved by making use of the instructional time available for teachers in effecting physical education through the integration of physical fitness activities with other subject activities (Gardner, 2009, p. 1). This recommendation has been touted by many educationists after it was established that students find the above strategy quite beneficial if the instructional time is used to undertake a given rigorous activity. Another alternative could be revamping the conventional school menu to give room for healthier diets (especially if there is very limited time to allocate for traditional physical exercising). Expanding partnerships between communities and learning institutions has also been advanced as one way through which institutions of learning can provide fitness related programming which is out of the boundaries of normal instructional time (Gardner, 2009, p. 1). The partnerships can be forged with community foundations, organization and even the state, through existing sport programs that may be beneficial to the students. Lastly, learning institutions can pursue a strategy of engaging the community to increase physical activity among the students. The community also includes parental involvement which is very important in the exercise because parents normally wield a lot of control on their children and most of them are also mentors to their children in their own light. Conclusion This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge which identifies that there is a positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement. It is also important to note that most of the empirical evidence gathered in this study is derived from a numb er of socioeconomic parameters across the globe, meaning that the same conclusions have been evidenced in a number of places around the world and across a number of demographical strata. There is a stronger evidence of a positive relation between physical fitness and academic achievement when analyzed in a number of subjects but more especially mathematics and sciences. The reason this observation is stronger in this group of subjects is not yet established and perhaps this should be the new frontier for future research studies. Although not many studies bother to touch on the real factors behind the positive relationship between physical exercising and academic performance, there is already speculation among educational circles that personal motivation may be a factor to watch considering physical exercising may actually portray a sense of personal achievement which may be mirrored through academic achievement (Chomitz, 2009, p. 35). This means that students who are highly motivate d at a personal level may as well strive to expose the same in physical exercising as well as academic excellence. Secondly, there has been speculation that physical activity may actually be a mirror of overall fitness of health where factors like nutrition, physical and weight status may actually portray a healthy student and such parameters are likely to lead to high academic achievement. This would essentially mean that academic achievement is probably evidenced because of overall good health as opposed to physical activity per se. In fact, there are already existing research studies exposing the link between good health and high academic achievement where factors like weight status, food sufficiency and such like general health status have been studied. This should be analyzed as its own distinct area of study and therefore its conclusions should not be augmented when analyzing physical fitness as a distinct independent variable. However, it should also be acknowledged that vari ous socioeconomic parameters play a big role in the increase of academic standards. This analysis is important because numerous studies have consistently mentioned the input of a student’s background because it extensively determines students’ academic performance. This also poses as a new area of research considering the relationship between physical fitness and academic performance could be done based on various socioeconomic statuses. Conclusively, this study points out that there is a positive correlation between physical exercising and academic achievement. Expressly, it also identifies how learning institutions can be able to maximize this benefit through partnerships, effective utilization of institutional time and such like factors. Allocating at least an hour a day to physical exercises is a commendable move according to medical experts because it improves brain activity and this consequently leads to an improvement of academic standards. Thus, in light of the positive influences physical activities has on academic progression it is in order to recommend that learning institutions should allocate more time to physical activities to improve educational performance because there is an obvious positive correlation between physical exercising and academic achievement. References Bailey, R. (2000). Teaching Physical Education 5-11. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. Biddle, S. (2008). Psychology of Physical Activity: Determinants, Well-Being, and  Interventions. London: Routledge. California Department of Education. (2005) A Study of the Relationship Between  Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement in California Using 2004 Test Results. Retrieved from: www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/pf/documents/2004pftresults.doc Chomitz, V. (2009). Is There a Relationship between Physical Fitness And Academic Achievement? Positive Results from Public School Children in the Northeastern United States. Journal of School Health, 79(1), 30-36. Corb in, C. (2010). Fitness for Life: Elementary School Guide for Wellness Coordinators. New York: Human Kinetics. Cottrell. (2010). Students Physical Fitness Associated With Academic Achievement;  Organized Physical Activity. Retrieved from: physorg.com/news186776754.html Gardner, J. (2009). Exploring the Link between Physical Fitness and  Academic Achievement. Retrieved from: http://gardnercenter.stanford.edu/current_initiatives/youth_archive.html Grissom, J. (2005). Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement.  Journal of Exercise Physiology, 8(1), 11-24. Harutyunyan, R. (2009). Physical Fitness Associated With Higher Academic  Achievement. Retrieved from: emaxhealth.com/2/81/32246/physical-fitness-associated-higher-academic-achievement.html Kirk, D. (2006). The Handbook of Physical Education. London: SAGE. Medical News. (2011). Strong Relationship between Kids Academic Achievement And  Fitness. Retrieved from: news-medical.net/news/2004/10/19/5684.aspx Rahl, R. (2010). Physic al Activity and Health Guidelines: Recommendations for Various  Ages, Fitness Levels, and Conditions from 57 Authoritative Sources. New York: Human Kinetics. Scheuer, L. J. (2003). Does Physical Activity Influence Academic Performance?  Retrieved from: sports-media.org/sportapolisnewsletter19.htm Science Daily. (2010). Students Physical Fitness Associated With Academic  Achievement; Organized Physical Activity. Retrieved from: sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100302185522.htm

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 21

Marketing - Essay Example In choosing a car, various decisions have been made as the customer progresses from one phase to the next. In pre-purchase for example, after the consumer has recognized a need in the form of a problem or an opportunity, the choice of where to look for information as regards the available alternatives to address the problem or opportunity is one of the decisions to be made. The choice of how much time and effort, i.e. her level of involvement in the decision, is also one of the decisions that she would make. She may look for information in the Internet, or she may decide to visit a car dealer to inquire about the product. After the consumer gathers enough information as regards her choices for the car models, the consumer will have to decide on what attributes she gives much emphasis, which will eventually constitute her criteria for the purchase decision. After she has determined her choice of brand,.she has to deal with smaller decisions such as the model of the car she would get, and the specifications. Sometimes, the choice of financing is part of the decision process, and could influence the purchase of one brand over the other. After she has made her choice based on her set of criteria, the next decision she has to make is how to place her order, i.e. the distribution channel. She can either choose to go to a nearby dealer, or place her order in the Internet if her chosen brands website has such an option available. The consumers last decision as regards the buying process would be an action that is prompted by her evaluation of the product. Her last decision will depend on the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction concerning her purchase, i.e. advocacy, positive feedback, no action, positive feedback, or lawsuit for extreme cases. C. What kinds of benefits marketing managers get from the study of consumer behavior? In other words, identify any kinds of managerial implications which will be helpful for designing marketing strategies or

Management - Psychological Contract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management - Psychological Contract - Essay Example Most employers try to retain employees is through making promises. However, most of the promises made may not be achievable. This process through which organizations makes promises is termed as psychological contract (O'neill, Krivokapic-Skoko & Dowell, 2010). The case provided is a clear example of the psychological contract. Failing to meet the promises lead to a phenomenon that is called psychological contract breach. Psychological contract breach is a significant problem mainly because it fosters a belief within employees that the organization does not support them. It is a main obstacle facing the employees in most of the organization today (Chen, Tsui & Zhong, 2008). Psychological contracts are those perceptions that employees have on employer related to the training, promotion, or any other promise not explicitly recognized in formal contract. These forms of psychological contract are normally used by most of the employers to entice the employees into accepting the job being o ffered by the employer. Principally, under normal situation, the employer-employee relationship is expected that the employer offer compensation to the employee for the performance of the job duties. Chen, Tsui & Zhong (2008) describes the psychological contracts as mental templates that sum up the perceived promises that employees believe that the organization has made to them in exchange for their efforts on behalf of the organization. As mentioned above, psychological contracts are beneficial and useful to both the employer and employee. For the employer, psychological contract constitute the best way in which an organization can advertise for the job vacancies. Psychological contracts are used to attract the attention of the applicant and make them loyal to the company. For the side of employee, psychological contract becomes beneficial only if they are fulfilled (Tyagi & Agrawal, 2010). Psychological contract breach is a term used to describe the inability of the employer to fu lfill the psychological contracts or the promises that he or she made during the recruitment period. The case study is a typical example of psychological contract breach. This is because the employer did not fulfill what he had promised the recruited. Just as the case depicts, psychological contract breach results in reduced performance, negative attitudes and more importantly, withdrawal behaviors. The problems associated with the psychological contract breach pose particular concern for organizations (Bordia, Restubog & Tang, 2008). Fundamentally, most organization tries their best to fulfill their psychological contracts but a number of factors limit them from meeting this objective. These factors include downsizing, outsourcing and rapid change. Consequently, avoiding psychological contract breach is a difficult task for the current organizations. The case presented in the case study implies that employees had higher expectation form the company. However, as they starts working in the company, they realized that they are not getting what they expected. They found out that the kind of jobs or duties they are given are below their standards. They end up becoming psychologically tortured. They also loss confidence in the organization. As they plan to leave their job, they feel that they may not get another job. This means that these employees need to be advised on what they should

Construction Project Delay: Causes and Effects

Construction Project Delay: Causes and Effects In this chapter, I will discuss types, causes and effects of delay of project in the construction industry. Besides that, I will also discuss the method to minimize the delays happening in construction industry 2.2 Type of Delay In construction industry, there are the categories of delays used in determining delay damage as shown in table 2.1 Figure 2.1 Types of Delay 2.2.1 Excusable delays Excusable delay as define a delay that is due to an unforeseeable event beyond the contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s or the subcontractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s control. Usually, based on common general provisions in public agency specifications, delay resulting from the following events would be considered excusable such as fires, floods, owner-directed changes, errors and omissions in the contract drawing, unusually severe weather and etc. Excusable delays can be further classified into excusable with compensation and excusable without compensation. 2.2.1.1 Excusable with compensation Compensation delays are caused by the owner or the owners agents. An example of this would be the drawings late release from the owners architect. An excusable, compensable delay normally leads to a schedule extension and exposes the owner to financial damages claimed by the contractor. In this scenario, the contractor incurs additional indirect costs for both extended field office and home office overhead and unabsorbed home office overhead. 2.2.1.2 Excusable delays without compensation Non-compensable delays are caused by third parties or incidents beyond the control of both the owner and the contractor. Examples typically include acts of God, unusual weather, strikes, fires, acts of government in its sovereign capacity, etc. In this case, the contractor is normally entitled to claim extension of time but no compensation for delay damages 2.2.2 Non-excusable delays Non-excusable delays are cause by lack of performance of the contractor on the construction project. This delay can be cause by underestimates of productivity, improper project planning and scheduling, poor site management and supervision, wrong construction methods, equipment breakdowns, unreliable subcontractors or suppliers. Therefore, it is contractor responsibilities to continue their work with no entitlement to claim for extension of time or delay damages until they completed the project. For instance, a contractor failure to provide an adequate material to completed their job. 2.2.3 Concurrent Delay Concurrent delay is a problem that happening on most of the construction industry project. This issue arises when two or more delaying event at the same time in a project cannot complete on time. In this situation, both owner and contractor are responsible for the delay. Commonly concurrent delays which involve any two or more excusable delays result in extension of time. When excusable with compensation and non-excusable delays are concurrent, an extension of time can be issued or the delay can be distribution between the owner and the contractor. Concurrent delay can be categories in three types of delays: If excusable and non-excusable delays occur concurrently, the contractor only to allow claim for extension of time: If excusable with compensation and excusable without compensation delays occur concurrently, the contractor is entitle to claim extension of time but no delay damages: If two excusable with compensation delays occur concurrently, the contractor is entitled to claim extension of time and delay damages. For instance, a concurrent delay would be if the owner failure to give more detail regarding either using ceramic tile or homogeneous tile for toilet floor finishes. But at the same time contractor made with own decision and using ceramic tile for toilet floor finishes but actually owner plan using homogeneous tile. In this situation, the contractor cannot claim for damages. It is because contractor is not follow owner instruction but he can claim for extension of time with owner failure to give more detail of drawing 2.3 Causes of delays Figure 2.2 Causes of delays Based on the researched done through by journal, books, and some other reference. Project delay can be causes by a lot of parties which is shown in the Figure 2.2. They are include client, contractor, consultant, labour, material, equipment, financial and some external causes. 2.3.1 Caused of Client Related Delays Figure 2.3 Factors of client related delays 2.3.1.1 Lack of experience of client in construction According to Koushki, et al. (2005) identified factors of lack of experiences of client in construction project have high influence to the causes of delays. Some of the project delay cause by client due to not enough experience especially fresh developer. Most of the time, client facing a problem and do not know how to solve it immediately because of no experience. During client finding the way to solve the problem, some of the work could not progress. Finally, the whole project delay because of some particular work delay. 2.3.1.2 Change order According to Odeh and Battaineh (2002) mentioned the factors of change orders that contribute to causes of delaysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Client always change the design during the construction period, during the same time that will affect whole project delay. It is because contractor cannot carry out his work until the latest drawing issue by architect. Consequently contractor cannot be done within the contract period. Most of the current project delay because of change order by client. For instance, a project almost complete but client change certain part of design and instruct contractor carry out the additional work. After done the whole project, the contractor found out was exceeding contract period. 2.3.1.3 Client interference According to Long, et al. (2004) studied the factors client interference that contributes to causes of delays in construction project. Some of the client instruct contractor to carry out additional work without ask architect promise. During the contractor carry out additional work, some of the work could not progress and it will be delay immediately. On the other hand, client do not follow the procedure such as did not mention architect issue an architect instruction. Finally it will affect the whole project delay. 2.3.2 Causes of contractor related delay Figure 2.4 Factors of contractor related delay 2.3.2.1 Inadequate contractor experience Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factors of inadequate contractor experience as contributor to causes of delays. Long, ET al. (2004) mentioned the factors of inadequate contractor experience that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Battaineh (2002) identified the factors of inadequate contractor experience as contributors to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the delay projects are facing a problem during construction period. But at the same time contractor could not solved the problem immediately because of no experience. During the contractor finding method to solve the problem, some of the works totally stop because of that problem. After the problem was solved, those work keeping continue but run out from the schedule. Finally, the whole project will influence delay. 2.3.2.2 Inaccurate time estimate According to Long, et al. (2004) identified the factors of inaccurate time estimating that contribute to causes of delays in construction project.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Time estimates are important as inputs into other technique used to manage and structure for all projects. An inaccurate time estimation technique may cause a project delay. For instance, in some delay project, the contractor do not allowed time for some common problem always happen during the construction stage such as breakdown of equipment, miss deliveries by supplies, accidents and emergencies and so on. Because of this problem the actual time will run out from the estimated. So, the whole project could be facing delay. 2.3.2.3 Inaccurate of cost estimate According to Long, et al. (2004) also mentioned that, the factors of inaccurate cost estimating that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Construction estimating errors can be very expensive and embarrassing. Inaccurate of cost estimate contribute a lot of cause such as wrong measurements from contract drawing, using incorrect units of measure, material improperly priced and the most common mistakes in arithmetic . Sometime contractor because of inaccurate of cost estimate measurement again for that particular work. Finally, due to re-measurement time some of the work will influence delay and it will also affect whole project to delay. 2.3.2.4 Poor site management and supervision Battaineh (2002) studied that, the factors of poor site management and supervision as contributors to causes of delays. Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factors of poor site management and supervision that contribute to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the project team a lack of management and supervision due team member without any experience and skill such as hire person who are fresh graduate. Once they facing problem but do not know how to solve it. Besides that, some of the supervisor did not cooperation with their team member due to lack of communicated. Finally, because of cannot solve the problem immediately the whole project influence delay. 2.3.3 Causes of Consultant Related Delays Figure 2.5 Factors of consultant related delays 2.3.3.1 Inadequate consultant experience According to Long, et al. (2004) studied the factors of inadequate consultant experience as contributors to causes of delays. In construction industry, they are many consultants carry out their work without experience. Besides that, there are many causes of a consultant without experience which include different site conditions, mismanagement and maladministration, site access restrictions, defective plan and/or specification. For instances, some of the architects only concentrated in certain part of building and do not have any experience in other type. Once architect design on that particular type of building without experiences, he will facing a lot of mistake and no ideas during design and because of this architect will delay issue the drawing. Finally, the works cannot process and it will affect the whole project delay. 2.3.3.2 Poor design and delay in design According to Ogunlana, et al.(1996) mentioned the factors of poor design and delay in design that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Design is every important to any project, without good design the whole project will influence delay. It is because in a project if facing poor design that will facing demolish and rebuilt again. This problem happens because of the designer lack of experience. For instance, an architect designs a column in the middle of classroom. Once the contractor without any experience and construct the work exactly shown in the drawing. Finally 2.3.3.3 Incomplete drawing and detail design Long, et al. (2004) identified the factors of incomplete drawing and detail design as contributors to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factors of incomplete drawing and detail design that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. During construction, the contractor is carrying out the work but because of drawing is unclear and none very detail shown in the drawing. He could not continue the work with problem, so the works have to stop immediately until get more detail of that particular drawing from consultant responds. Because of without detail drawing the work could not be progress, so it will affect the tat particular work delay and it will also influence the whole project delay. 2.3.4 Causes of labour related delays Figure 2.6 Factors of labour related delays 2.3.4.1 Labour supply Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) identified the factors of slow labor supply that contribute to causes of delays. Odeh and Bataineh (2002) in their research identified à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the factors of labor supply as contributors to causes of delays. Besides material, the labour also consider as major source in the construction industry. Generally, labour are categories into two groups such as skilled workers and unskilled workers. In construction industry without labour project could not run. For instance, during construction, materials are ready to but no worker carrying out the work. During the same time because of no worker to progress of work, the project will confront project delay. 2.3.4.2 Shortage of skilled worker According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) mentioned the factor of shortage of skill labor is the most important factor that contributed to causes of delays. Skilled worker is a worker who has some special skill, knowledge and ability in his job and also gets highest pay such as plasterer, carpenter, painter, and concreter. Those skilled workers are learning the skills on the job. In construction, some contractors do not hire skilled workers because of higher labour cost and he employs some unskilled workers. At the same time skilled workers do not want get the job from the contractor with lower labour cost. Finally the unskilled workers could not complete the work on time. So, because of shortage of skilled worker affect whole project delay. 2.3.4.3 Labor of productivity According to Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factor of labor productivity having high influence to causes of delays. Labor of productivity; generally define as output per labour hour. There are many factors that influence on the labour productivity. One of the factors is workers experience, labour with high experience and high skills in field leads to high performance at workplace. Besides that, attitude also will affect productivity of labour. For instance, a worker can lay one meter square per hour but because of lazy. Finally he using three hours to finish laid the brick wall. Because of this factor, the progress work delay and it will also influence the whole project delay. 2.3.5 Causes of Material related Delay Figure 2.7 Factors of material related delay 2.3.5.1 Shortage of construction materials Koushki, et al. (2005) mentioned that, factor shortage of construction material that contribute to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of shortage of material as a factor to causes of delay. Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) studied that factors shortage of material as contributors that contribute to causes of delays. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) identified the factor of shortage of material that contribute to causes of delays. Material shortage is a potential source of construction delay. The major causes of material shortage is demand exceed supply. In construction have a lot type of material and the three main courses are cement, formwork and steel bar. Besides that, material is one of the main sources in construction industry. It is because without material project cannot construct. If a project facing the material shortage problem will be delay. For instance, a project having shortage ceramic tiles even though the labours ready for tiling. In this situatio n, the project will facing delay project. 2.3.5.2 Late delivery of materials Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of late delivery of material as a factor to causes of delay. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factor of late delivery of material that contribute to causes of delays. Late delivery of material as a supplier fault due to high market demand; however the long procedure of the purchasing order from head office was complained. In construction, it factor is similar to the material shortage such as the labour ready for work but no material to do their work. Once contractor cannot receive the material on time that will be delay work and it will also affect project delay. For example, workers want to install the windows but without frame because of late delivery to site. So, the work will be delay and it will affect project delay. 2.3.5.3 Poor quality of construction materials Koushki, et al. (2005) mentioned that factor poor quality of material that contribute to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of poor quality of material as a factor to causes of delay. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factor of poor quality of material that contribute to causes of delays. Poor quality of material is construct building with using poor quality of material. The contractor has intention to cheat owner to earn more profit by change the quality of material such as concrete. For instance, a contractor cast a column with using Y 20 steel bar but actual in contract drawing is Y 25. After site staff done the inspection for this column and found that the steel bar inside column is Y 20 and ask contractor demolish the column to rebuild. In this case, time taken to rebuild the column will also affect project delay. 2.3.5.4 Escalation of material prices Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of escalation of material prices as a factor to causes of delay. Wiguna and Scoot (2005) studied the factor of escalation of material prices was one factor that contribute to causes of delays. Escalation of material prices will cause shortage material in construction. It is because the market rate is keeping increasing. Some of the contractor does not buy the expensive material. During same time, the construction without material cannot run so the project will influence the project delay. For instance, a contractor because of material cost of market demands higher and does not make any order for material until material shortage. Finally, the construction cannot run without material and it will affect delay project also. 2.3.6 Causes of Equipment Related Delays Figure 2.8 Factors of Equipment related delays 2.3.6.1 Insufficient number of equipment According to Ogunlana, et al. (1998) identified the factors of insufficient numbers of equipment is the most significant factors that contribute to causes of delays. In construction stage, contractors are facing not enough machinery to produce work. It is because some of the contractors do not have a large capital to purchase that machinery due to higher cost. Once the projects carry out with not enough machinery, it will influence whole project delay. For instance, there are two works to be done by using towel crane but in site only one towel crane available. Finally, two of work could not be done at the same time due to not enough towel cranes. 2.3.6.2 Frequent equipment breakdown McCaffer (1998) studied the factors of equipment breakdown as contributors to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1998) mentioned the factor of frequent equipment breakdown is the most significant factors that contribute to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the machinery always breakdown due to improper using by worker such as do not follow the instruction. For instance, machinery only can support for five hundred kilograms of material but during worker using that machinery and his carry out six hundred kilograms of material. Finally, the machinery will breakdown. Once machinery breakdown, the work will be stop immediately and affect some work delay. Finally, because of machinery breakdown the whole project will also influence delay. 2.3.6.3 Shortage of Equipment Parts According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factor of shortage of equipment parts that contribute to causes of delays. After machinery breakdown, the technical carry out the repair work for the breakdown of equipment. During the same time, some part of machinery none have stock in market. Because of no spare part to repair the machinery, some of the works facing stop progress immediately. Consequently, it will influence whole project to be delay. 2.3.7 Causes of Financial Related Delays Figure 2.9 Factors of Financial related delays 2.3.7.1 Clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factors of clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties as contributor to causes of delays. During the construction, client will face some financial problem arise from unanticipated emergencies or financial mismanagement such as global financial crisis. Besides that, a client proposes a new development without borrow term loan or bridging loan from the bank. On the other hand, improper cost planning is a most serious problem for those clients facing in current delay project. For instance, during pre-construction stage a client do not planning cost properly and he will facing a lot of problem in construction stage such as no enough capital to pay contractor payment. Finally, because of contractor did not receive payment to influence whole project delay. 2.3.7.2 Delay payment to suppliers/subcontractor According to Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) mentioned the factors of inadequate fund allocation and delay payment to subcontractor/suppliers as contributor to causes of delays in construction project. Due to sub- contractor do not take their responsibility to done the work on time. The contractor will delay the payment until they complete the job. But at the same time, the sub-contractor refuse to work because of not yet receive payment. As a consequently, the whole project will be influence delay due to sub-contractor refuse to work. 2.3.7.3 Contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties According to Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factors of contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties having high influence to causes of delays. Poor financial management has been known as one of the factors why certain project cannot complete within contract period. Because of contractor lack of experience and could not manage their capital properly. On the other hand, because of delay payment by client contractor not enough money to cover up all sub-contractors and suppliers payment. Finally, the sub-contractor and suppliers refuse to work and supply material to the site and because of this factor the whole will influence delay. 2.3.8 Causes of External Related Delays Figure 2.10 Factors of external related delays 2.3.8.1 Weather condition Odeh and Battaineh (2002) identified the factors of weather condition as contributors to causes of delays. Long, et al. (2004) mentioned factors weather condition as factors ofexternal related delays. AL-Momani (2000) studied the factor of weather condition as contributors to causes of delays in construction project. During the construction period, weather is a factor to influence the whole project delay. It because weather condition that interfere with planned activities. Some activities can process but other cannot. For instances, during the worker cast the ground floor slab, but because of raining that particular work to be delay. 2.3.8.2 Slow site clearance According to Long, et al. (2004) identified factors of slow site clearance as factors of external related delays. During begin of construction stage, the responsibility party should have to carry out their work for site clearance immediately. Without clearance the site construction work cannot process. In some delay project found that, the third party did not take their responsibility to finish the site clearance within the period. Consequently, the whole project delay because of site clearance works delay. 2.4 Effect of Delays According to Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) identified the effects of construction delays on project delivery in Nigerian construction industry. They also said that the six major effects of delays follow by rank which include time overrun, cost overrun, dispute, arbitration, litigation, and total abandonment as shown in the Table 2.11 Effects of Delay Rank Time overrun 1 Cost overrun 2 Dispute 3 Arbitration 4 Litigation 5 Total Abandonment 6 Source : Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) Table 2.11 The effect of delays 2.4.1 Time overrun Time overrun it mean contractor could not carry out their work within contract period. In generally, time overrun can be categories into two group which include excusable delays and non-excusable. Once the project facing time overrun, it will affect the progress of work cannot finish on time. Besides that, the fault party will take the responsibility to pay the relevant parties for damages because of delay. For instance, during the project almost completed, but at the same time contractor because of exceptionally implement weather cannot completed the project within contract period. In this situation the contractor entitle to claim extension of time. On the other hand, if that contractor cannot complete the work within contract period due to his own fault. So the contractor no entitle to claim extension of time and he need to pay liquated damages. As stated in Persatuan Arkitek Malaysia form 2006 (PAM form 2006), which certain clauses stating about the damages by employer due to this event. It stated that in clauses below. 2.3.1.1 Clause 22.1 Liquidated Damage and Certificate of Non-Completion If the contractor fails to complete the works by the Completion Date, and the architect is of the opinion that the same ought reasonably so to have been completed, the architect shall issue a certificate of Non-completion. Upon the issuance of the certificate of Non-Completion the contractor shall pay or allow to the Employer a sum calculated at the rate stated in the Appendix as Liquidated Damages for the period from the Completion Date to the Date of Practical Completion. The Employer may recover such sum from the Performance Bond. The Employer shall inform the contractor in writing of such deduction or such debt due to from the contractor. The imposition of Liquated Damages by the Employer shall not be taken into account by the Architect in the issuance of payment certificates and Final Certificate, and is not subject to the set-off procedures under clause 30.4 and adjudication. 2.3.1.2 Clause 23.1 Submission of notice and particulars for extension of time If the Contractor is of the opinion that the completion of the Work is or will be delayed beyond the completion Date by any of the Relevant Event stated in Clause 23.8, he may apply for an extension of time provided always that 2.3.1.3 Clause 23.8 Relevant Events Exceptionally implement weather 2.4.2 Cost overrun During construction stages, the client and contractor always facing of cost overrun. Cost overrun  is an unexpected  cost  incurred in excess of a budgeted amount, due to  cost underestimation. Cost overrun is related to time overrun, once a project cannot be done in time, it will also affect the cost of project over budget. Commonly, cost overrun always happen due to contractor own fault such as inaccurate of cost estimate and he need to take responsibility to pay owner loss and expense. For instance, a contractor because of improper cost planning due to cost overrun. Finally, the owner set of his loss and expense from the contractor interim payment. 2.4.3 Dispute In construction industry, some of project delay because of dispute between contractual parties such as client, consultants, contractor and some relevant parties. Those disputes because of client failure make payment to the contractor. Once dispute happen, the relevant parties will go through with mediation. The mediator will make a decision to solve the problem. But if one of the parties does not accept the decision made by mediator, the parties will appeal the decision with arbitrator. If both parties accept the decision and the fault parties will take responsibility to pay damages for project delay. 2.4.4 Arbitration In current delay project, some of the contractual parties do not accept the mediator decision and they appeal in arbitration. Arbitrator will also make the decision to solve the problem. But if one of the parties does not accept the decision again made by Arbitrator, they still can appeal the decision in litigation. 2.4.5 Litigation In some delay project, the relevant parties because of still do not accept with the arbitrator decision. They are appeal the result in litigation which is dispute resolution in the courts. In litigation, the parties have a trial either by a court alone or by jury. If those parties are not satisfied judgment again, then they can appeal again if they have any new evidence to proof their right. But one the parties accept with the judgment, the faulty of parties need take responsibility to pay the penalty 2.4.6 Total abandonment Total abandonment it means the whole project stop immediately because of client facing financial difficulties. Some of the current delay project totally abandoned because of clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s or contractor problem which include clients bankruptcy, contractor run away, poor marketing and sales strategies and so on. The effect of project totally abandoned will affect many parties such as contractual parties which include contractor, consultant, sub-contractor, supplier and some other relevant parties. Besides those parties, the purchasers will also suffer in cost damages due to project abandoned. 2.5 Methods of minimizing construction delays According to Nguyen, et al. (2004), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“studied the factors that can be applied as a method of minimizing of construction delays as follows: competent project manager; frequent progress meeting; accurate initial cost estimates; accurate initial time estimates; awarding bids to the right/experience consultant and contractor.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During pre-construction stage, a client should employ a depth knowledge project manager to organize a good project team member to progress the work. Besides that, the project team member should be always discussing with the problem having during the site progress. On the other hand, contractor should be employs some employee with experience such as quantity surveyor. So that, during the time or cost estimate they can add on some unforeseen event to avoid the cost and time overrun. Furthermore, the developer should be hire some experience consultant and contractor.iot is because once they facing problem, they can refer previous project to so lve the problem immediately. So, the project can process with smoothly. According to Aibinu and Jagboro (2002), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“identified two methods to minimize or if possible eliminate time overrun were: acceleration of site activities, and contingency allowance.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During construction stages, the contractor should carry out his responsibility to make sure the work progress can complete in time. If found that work progress are not equal to the estimate schedule. The contractor may carry out with acceleration such as hire additional worker. Besides that, the client may allow contractor standby some extra cost for unforeseen event such as accidents. According to Koushki, et al. (2005), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“revealed that the minimization of time delays and cost overruns would require: ensure adequate and available source of finance until project completion; ensure timely delivery of materials.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During pre-construction, a client may prepare a good cash flow within the contract period. Once the client does not enough money to cover up construction cost, he can borrow a term loan or bridging loan from the bank to cover the cost until the whole project completed. It will avoid project delay due to client not enough capital. Besides that, the contractors make sure that material are order with a reliable suppliers and can receive it on time. Acco

Humanity versus Virtual Reality Essay -- William Wordsworth Technology

Humanity versus Virtual Reality . . . Aiding this process was a definition of information, formalized by Claude Shannon and Norbert Wiener, that conceptualized information as an entity distinct from the substrates carrying it. From this formulation, it was a small step to think of information as a kind of bodiless fluid that could flow between different substrates without loss of meaning or form. Writing nearly four decades after Turing, Hans Moravec proposed that human identity is essentially an informational pattern rather than an embodied enaction. —N. Katherine Hayles, "How We Became Posthuman" William Wordsworth was well aware of the effect of technology upon human beings. Of course he would have been speculating had he tried to predict what life would be like in the 21st century; he could not have predicted the internet, for example. As one reads contemporary literature, particularly that which deals with virtual reality or the cyber-punk genre, one begins to see the ways in which Wordsworth's romantic thinking has infiltrated writers' and artists' perception of reality and the human mind. In Wordsworth's The Prelude (1805), Book Twelfth, the poem of primary interest in this essay, Wordsworth questions and contemplates the relationship of the external world with the human mind and perception, which becomes a question about the human soul. Virtual reality and Wordsworth's romanticism have this in common: they are interested in the relationship of the human being with his environment. Virtual reality involves the sensory stimuli of a person in an artificial environment. For Wordsworth, that which gives meaning to the human experience is the environment that is as real and as genuine as the person interacting within the... ...tities. That which gives us the energy to live and continue creating a society in which we want to live comes from something much larger than science. Reason and logic fail in giving humanity's quest for meaning an answer that is satisfactory and complete. The truth is not compiled or realized with an ordered inquiry; scientists will never find an equation for love. People must look beyond logic in order to realize the extent and the meaning of life. Works Cited Hayles, Katherine N. Prologue. How We Became Posthuman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. Stephenson, Neal. The Diamond Age. Or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer. New York: Bantam Spectra, 1995. Wordsworth, William. "Book Twelfth." The Prelude. 1805. The Prelude: 1799, 1805, 1850. Eds. Jonathan Wordsworth, M.H. Abrams, and Stephen Gill. New York: WW Norton & Company, 1979. 436-456.

Most Serene about venice

,† is an improbable cityscape of stone palaces that seem to float on water, a place where cats nap on Oriental marble windowsills set in colorful plaster walls. Candy-striped pylons stand sentry outside the tiny stone docks of palazzi whose front steps descend into the gently lapping waters of the canals that lace the city. In Venice, cars are banned every form of transportation floats, from water taxis and vaporetti (the public â€Å"bus† ferries) to ambulance speedboats and garbage scows.Venice is a place where locals stop at the bacaro (wine bar) to take un ombra (literally a little bit of shade,† in practice, a glass of wine) and munch on cicchetti (tapasllke snacks) or linger over exquisite restaurant seafood dinners. It is also a city of great art and grand old masters. Venetian painting featured early masters such as the Bellini clan Jacopo from the 1420s, sons Giovanni and Gentile from the 1460s.By the early 15005, Venice had taken the Renaissance torch fro m Florence and made it its own, lending the movement the new color and lighting schemes of such giants as Giorgione, Tiziano (Titian), Paolo Veronese, and Tintoretto. So much for Venice the Serenissima. There's also Venice the insanely popular and overcrowded. Certainly, the tourists can seem inescapable, and prices can be double or triple here what they are elsewhere In Italy. But visitors flock to this canalled wonder for very good reason: Venice is extraordinary, It Is magical, and It Is worth every cent.Its existence defies logic, but underneath its otherworldly beauty and sometimes-stifling tourism, Venice is a living, breathing, singular city that seems almost too exquisite to be genuine, too fragile to survive the never-ending stream of visitors who have been making the pilgrimage ere for 1,500 years. As barbarian hordes washed back and forth across the Alps during the decline of the Roman Empire (starting in the 4th c. ) inhabitants of the Veneto flatlands grew tired of bein g routinely sacked and pillaged along the way.By the 6th century, many had begun moving out onto the mud-flat Islands of the marshy lagoon, created by what was in ancient times the Po River delta, to take up fishermen's lines or trading ships. When they saw that one barbarian horde, the Lombards, had stayed to settle the upper Po valley (still called Lombardy), these Veneti decided to remain on their new sland homes and ally themselves instead with the eastern remnant of the old Roman Empire, Byzantium. Oddly, what we now consider central Venice was the last area settled.After Attila the Hun rampaged through, citizens of the Roman town of Altino moved out onto Torcello ironic, since Torcello's star has long since fallen and it is now the least built-up of all of greater Venice's major inhabited islands. Townsfolk from Oderzo moved to Malamocco and made it the lagoon's political capital (the original site is now underwater, and the Malamocco that survives nearby is a fishing village on the outhern stretch of the Lido, near the golf course).After barely defeating Charlemagne's son Pepin there in 810, the capital was moved to the more protected Rialto islands now central Venice. Greater Venice's oldest surviving structure is the cathedral on Torcello, founded in 639, but today's site is largely from the 9th and 10th centuries. In fact, sparsely populated Torcello is one of the best glimpses into what early Venice must have looked like scattered buildings and canals banked by waving rushes and reeds, everything outlined by the dotted lines of wooden piles hammered down into the ud.This construction is what underlies all those stone palazzi of central Venice: a framework foundation of sunken tree trunks, hammered down into the caranto (a solid clay layer under the surface of mud and sand) and preserved in the anaerobic atmosphere of their muddy tomb, overlain with Istrian stone. As its power began to peak in the early 13th century, Venice led the fourth and most su ccessful Crusade, capturing Constantinople itself. It went on to conquer territories across what are today Turkey, the Greek Isles, and Crete and eventually became the apital of Italy's inland provinces, now the Veneto, Trentino, and Friuli.By 1300, it was one of the largest cities and the leading maritime republic of Europe and the Mediterranean. Although the Black Death carried off over half the population from 1347 to 1350, Venice bounced back and remained a maritime power until the 18th century, when trade through the new American colonies would increasingly steal much of the city's thunder. By the end of the 18th century, Venice had run out of steam commercially, not to mention militarily, after centuries spent fghting the Turks (who slowly regained most f Venice's Aegean and Greek territories).By the time Napoleon came along in 1797, the Venetian Republic offered little resistance. Napoleon gave control of Venice to Austria, under whose rule it remained for almost 70 years. Da niele Manin did stage an unsuccessful minirevolution in 1848 and 1849, during which Venice was privileged to become the first city attacked from the air by a fleet of hot-air balloons armed with long-fused time bombs. The Risorgimento (unification) movement and its king, Vittorio Emanuele II, defeated the Austrians, gained control of the Veneto, and made t a part of the newly minted state of Italy in 1866.In its position at the crossroads of the Byzantine and Roman later Eastern and Western worlds, Venice, over many centuries, acquired a unique amalgamated heritage of art, architecture, and culture. And although hordes of traders and merchants no longer pass through as they once did, Venice nonetheless continues to find itself at a crossroads: an intersection in time between the uncontested period of afloat. It is a great disservice to allot Venice the average stay of 2 nights and 3 days (it ometimes takes the better part of a day Just to find your hotel).

Annotated Bibliography On Hiv And Aids - 2293 Words

Overview of HIV Disease in India India has the third largest population of people living with HIV, behind Nigeria (second largest) and South Africa (largest population) (â€Å"India has 3rd Highest Number of HIV Infections,† 2014). There are approximately 2,100,000 [1,700,000 - 2,700,000] people living with HIV in India and there is a prevalence rate of 0.3% [0.2% - 0.3%] for adults aged 15 to 49 (â€Å"HIV and AIDS Estimates in 2013,† 2013). There is a high risk for HIV infection in India due to the high rate of unprotected sex, low use of condoms, injecting drugs with HIV contaminated needles, the low social and political status of women and the negative stigma associated with being HIV positive (â€Å"HIV/AIDS in India,† 2012). The main focus of the government on HIV and AIDS is to spread awareness in the population and to convey the importance of protected sex and blood safety. These goals about HIV infection prevention are addressed by various organizations in India and in the world, such as the AIDS Society of India and UNAIDS (â€Å"HIV/AIDS in India,† 2012). However, the majority of the HIV population in India does not know their HIV positive status, coverage of HIV treatment is only 36 percent and 64 percent do not have access to HIV antiretroviral treatment options (â€Å"India has 3rd Highest Number of HIV Infections,† 2014). Number of Infections: Old and New As of 2013, there are approximately 2.4 million people living with HIV/AIDS in India. The prevalence rate of about 0.3% in adultsShow MoreRelatedSummary Of Pray The Gay Away 980 Words   |  4 Pages Annotated Bibliography: 1. Barton, Bernadette C.. Pray the Gay Away : The Extraordinary Lives of Bible Belt Gays. New York: NYU Press, 2012. Ebook Library. Web. 27 Apr. 2016. This book Pray the Gay Away by Bernadetta C. 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